Sialic acids (Sia) are a structurally diverse family of nine-carbon sugars that play a crucial role in cell–cell communication, immune modulation, and neurodevelopment. Their unique ability to form homo- and oligo-polymers, along with a variety of linkages and chemical modifications, contributes to the complexity of glycosylation patterns on cell surfaces. Particularly enriched in the Central Nervous System (CNS), polysialic acids are involved in processes such as synaptogenesis, neuroplasticity, and modulation of neurotransmitter activity. This study explores the biosynthesis, recycling, and functional roles of Sia in the CNS, emphasizing their involvement in immune regulation via SIGLEC receptors and complement system modulation. It also addresses the pathological implications of Sia mimicry by pathogens such as Neisseria meningitidis and E. coli, which exploit sialylation to evade immune responses.

Retinoblastoma is the most common ocular malignancy in children. It results from mutations in the RB1 gene or from MYCN oncogene amplification. We distinguish between the more common unilateral form and the rarer bilateral form. It is important to note that bilateral retinoblastoma is always hereditary. The most common and characteristic symptom is the white pupillary reflex. In addition, the child may develop strabismus or heterochromia. Treatment methods vary, ranging from those aimed at salvaging the eye to those involving total enucleation. Prognosis depends on the location and stage of the tumor. This review aims to explore the literature on new therapeutic methods and recent discoveries in the field of retinoblastoma.

Introduction and purpose Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection stands as the prevalent infection among newborns and it may be associated with later complications such as progressive sensorineural hearing loss or neurological diseases. Infection occurs during pregnancy or during childbirth. Congenital CMV infections manifest in various ways, ranging from asymptomatic cases to severe complications such as microcephaly, hepatosplenomegaly, and chorioretinitis. Routine antibody screenings for pregnant women are not common, underlining the significance of early infection detection to minimize the risks of transmission to the fetus and potential complications in the child. The aim of this case report is to present the course of congenital CMV infection and its complication. This case report explores the challenges of managing an infant with congenital CMV infection complicated by hydrocephalus and viral co-infections. The infant underwent various treatments, including antiviral therapy, highlighting the need for multidisciplinary approaches. Conclusion With no available vaccine, prevention of congenital CMV infection relies on educating reproductive-age women and expectant mothers about infection risks. Early detection, frequent medical check-ups, and preventive education are crucial due to the absence of vaccines. Ongoing exploration of antiviral treatments and prompt interventions is imperative to improve outcomes for infants and families affected by the virus.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the leading cause of global chronic liver disease, with a prevalence of approximately 30%. This review outlines the diagnostic transition from the exclusionary non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) framework to the affirmative MASLD nomenclature, which mandates the presence of at least one of five specific cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRFs) to prioritize active pathophysiology. Beyond hepatic complications, MASLD drives systemic metabolic failure, significantly elevating risks for type 2 diabetes, hepatocellular carcinoma, and cardiovascular disease, the primary cause of mortality in this cohort. Clinical management relies on a standardized, two-tier risk-stratification pathway for advanced fibrosis. Primary care triage utilizes the Fibrosis–4 (FIB–4) index; a score < 1.3 excludes advanced disease via a high negative predictive value, whereas indeterminate or high scores require secondary validation via vibration-controlled transient elastography (VCTE) or the enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF) test to guide specialist referral. Although lifestyle modifications, principally a 7–10% weight reduction and Mediterranean diet adherence, remain foundational, management has transitioned toward disease-modifying pharmacotherapies. A pivotal breakthrough occurred with the 2024 FDA approval of resmetirom, a selective thyroid hormone receptor-beta (THR-β) agonist, for non-cirrhotic metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) with moderate-to-advanced fibrosis. Concurrently, the emergence of GLP-1 receptor agonists and multi-incretin mimetics offers a personalized, multi-target approach simultaneously addressing hepatic inflammation, glycemic control, and adiposity.

Introduction and purpose Toxoplasmosis, a prevalent parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, impacts approximately one-third of the global population. Among congenital infections, Congenital Toxoplasmosis (CT) ranks second only to CMV infection in neonates. The severity of fetal and neonatal clinical manifestations depends on factors such as gestational age during infection, parasite load, infectious strain virulence, and maternal immune status. The organogenesis stage in the second trimester is identified as the critical period (10th-24th gestational weeks). Fetal CT may present with ultrasound-detected abnormalities, including intracranial calcifications, microcephaly, hydrocephalus, ascites, hepatosplenomegaly or severe intrauterine growth restriction. Even in the absence of symptoms at birth, CT can lead to long-term consequences such as hydrocephalus, seizures, and cognitive, auditory, and visual impairments. The aim of this study is to present a clinical case of a patient with CT infection complicated by treatment-resistant hydrocephalus and neurological symptoms, including muscle tone disturbances and seizures. Conclusion The significance of screening tests cannot be overstated, as early intervention is crucial to prevent enduring complications. Routine counseling for pregnant women is imperative to raise awareness about Toxoplasma gondii infection, empowering them to adopt necessary preventive measures. Additionally, further research is warranted to assess the efficacy of diverse treatment protocols, the risk of adverse effects, and the effectiveness of emerging therapeutic agents.

Pityriasis versicolor is a common, mild skin disease caused by a yeast-like fungus from the Malassezia genus. This fungus naturally inhabits the skin of healthy individuals, but under certain conditions, such as increased sebum production or immunocompromised states, it can lead to the formation of scaly patches that are hypo or hyperpigmented, and sometimes they can be discolored. These lesions typically appear on the torso, neck, or shoulders and vary in size. Over time, they may enlarge. Diagnosis involves a physical examination, mycological testing, and examination under a Wood's lamp. Treatment consists of topical or systemic antifungal medications. The condition is recurrent. Personal hygiene plays an important role in prevention. The article is a comprehensive review of the available scientific literature on the pathogenesis, clinical picture, diagnosis and treatment of pityriasis versicolor.