The aging process significantly increases the likelihood of developing ocular diseases, most notably Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD), which is a leading cause of vision loss both in the US and globally. The development of this disease is directly driven by aging changes occurring in the retina. These include the deposition of specific deposits called drusen, structural remodeling of Bruch's membrane and the extracellular matrix, as well as inflammation and vascular dysfunction. Additionally, this process is fueled by mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress caused by an excess of free radicals (ROS), which ultimately leads to the degradation of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. Because current methods for preventing and treating AMD are highly insufficient, researchers are continuously searching for innovative therapeutic strategies and new drug targets.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common and serious chronic complications of diabetes mellitus, representing the leading cause of vision loss among working-age adults. The disease results from prolonged hyperglycemia, which leads to damage of the retinal microvasculature, causing endothelial dysfunction, increased vascular permeability, ischemia, and subsequent pathological neovascularization. Two main stages of DR are distinguished — non-proliferative (NPDR) and proliferative (PDR) — reflecting the progressive severity of vascular alterations within the retina. Early stages of the disease are often asymptomatic, making regular ophthalmic screening and advanced imaging techniques, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography, essential for early detection. Management of diabetic retinopathy includes both systemic metabolic control (maintaining optimal blood glucose, blood pressure, and lipid levels) and local treatments, such as laser photocoagulation, intravitreal injections of VEGF inhibitors or corticosteroids. In advanced cases, vitrectomy may be required. Despite significant progress in diagnosis and therapy, DR remains a major public health concern, requiring close collaboration between diabetologists, ophthalmologists, and patients. This review summarizes the current understanding of the pathogenesis, classification, diagnostic methods, and treatment strategies for diabetic retinopathy, with particular emphasis on recent research directions and potential innovative therapeutic approaches.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the leading cause of global chronic liver disease, with a prevalence of approximately 30%. This review outlines the diagnostic transition from the exclusionary non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) framework to the affirmative MASLD nomenclature, which mandates the presence of at least one of five specific cardiometabolic risk factors (CMRFs) to prioritize active pathophysiology. Beyond hepatic complications, MASLD drives systemic metabolic failure, significantly elevating risks for type 2 diabetes, hepatocellular carcinoma, and cardiovascular disease, the primary cause of mortality in this cohort. Clinical management relies on a standardized, two-tier risk-stratification pathway for advanced fibrosis. Primary care triage utilizes the Fibrosis–4 (FIB–4) index; a score < 1.3 excludes advanced disease via a high negative predictive value, whereas indeterminate or high scores require secondary validation via vibration-controlled transient elastography (VCTE) or the enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF) test to guide specialist referral. Although lifestyle modifications, principally a 7–10% weight reduction and Mediterranean diet adherence, remain foundational, management has transitioned toward disease-modifying pharmacotherapies. A pivotal breakthrough occurred with the 2024 FDA approval of resmetirom, a selective thyroid hormone receptor-beta (THR-β) agonist, for non-cirrhotic metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) with moderate-to-advanced fibrosis. Concurrently, the emergence of GLP-1 receptor agonists and multi-incretin mimetics offers a personalized, multi-target approach simultaneously addressing hepatic inflammation, glycemic control, and adiposity.

Introduction and purpose Congenital Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection stands as the prevalent infection among newborns and it may be associated with later complications such as progressive sensorineural hearing loss or neurological diseases. Infection occurs during pregnancy or during childbirth. Congenital CMV infections manifest in various ways, ranging from asymptomatic cases to severe complications such as microcephaly, hepatosplenomegaly, and chorioretinitis. Routine antibody screenings for pregnant women are not common, underlining the significance of early infection detection to minimize the risks of transmission to the fetus and potential complications in the child. The aim of this case report is to present the course of congenital CMV infection and its complication. This case report explores the challenges of managing an infant with congenital CMV infection complicated by hydrocephalus and viral co-infections. The infant underwent various treatments, including antiviral therapy, highlighting the need for multidisciplinary approaches. Conclusion With no available vaccine, prevention of congenital CMV infection relies on educating reproductive-age women and expectant mothers about infection risks. Early detection, frequent medical check-ups, and preventive education are crucial due to the absence of vaccines. Ongoing exploration of antiviral treatments and prompt interventions is imperative to improve outcomes for infants and families affected by the virus.

Sialic acids (Sia) are a structurally diverse family of nine-carbon sugars that play a crucial role in cell–cell communication, immune modulation, and neurodevelopment. Their unique ability to form homo- and oligo-polymers, along with a variety of linkages and chemical modifications, contributes to the complexity of glycosylation patterns on cell surfaces. Particularly enriched in the Central Nervous System (CNS), polysialic acids are involved in processes such as synaptogenesis, neuroplasticity, and modulation of neurotransmitter activity. This study explores the biosynthesis, recycling, and functional roles of Sia in the CNS, emphasizing their involvement in immune regulation via SIGLEC receptors and complement system modulation. It also addresses the pathological implications of Sia mimicry by pathogens such as Neisseria meningitidis and E. coli, which exploit sialylation to evade immune responses.

Retinoblastoma is the most common ocular malignancy in children. It results from mutations in the RB1 gene or from MYCN oncogene amplification. We distinguish between the more common unilateral form and the rarer bilateral form. It is important to note that bilateral retinoblastoma is always hereditary. The most common and characteristic symptom is the white pupillary reflex. In addition, the child may develop strabismus or heterochromia. Treatment methods vary, ranging from those aimed at salvaging the eye to those involving total enucleation. Prognosis depends on the location and stage of the tumor. This review aims to explore the literature on new therapeutic methods and recent discoveries in the field of retinoblastoma.