Small-particle-produced goods, such as those used in industry, medicine, cosmetics, paints, abrasives, and plastic pellets or powders, are the main sources of microplastics. It is also possible to mention tire recycling granules here. Larger components break down in the environment to generate secondary microplastics. Microplastics, or particles smaller than 5 mm, and nanoplastics, or particles smaller than 1 μm, are the products of degradation and, in particular, disintegration processes that occur in nature as a result of several physical, chemical, and biological variables. Polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, polyurethane, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are among the chemicals included in this contamination in decreasing order of quantity. Micro- and nanoplastics have been detected in the air, water, and soil, confirming their ubiquitous presence in natural environments. Their widespread distribution poses significant threats to human health, including oxidative stress, inflammation, cellular damage, and potential carcinogenic effects. The aim of this article is to review the current literature on the occurrence of micro- and nanoplastics in various environmental compartments and to analyze the associated health consequences. The article also discusses existing legal regulations and highlights the urgent need for intensified research into the toxicological mechanisms of microplastics and the development of more effective strategies for their mitigation.

Objectives: Iodine and selenium are key elements for thyroid. There is also evidence of their immunoregulatory potential. However, the current state of knowledge of potential interactions among iodine—selenium—thyroid—immune system is not sufficient. The aim of the study was to evaluate iodine and selenium statuses and examine the relationship between them and the functioning of the thyroid and immune system in a group of women of reproductive age, without previously diagnosed disease. Methods: The study involved a group of 60 women aged 19–40 from southern Poland. The concentrations of iodine and selenium were determined in serum samples using the ICP-MS and AAS methods, respectively. Thyroid function was assessed by determining serum levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free thyroxine (fT4), and anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies (anti-TPO) by electrochemiluminescence methods. Glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3) and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) in serum were measured by spectrophotometric methods. Immune functions were evaluated by analyzing cytokine levels using ELISA tests, including interferon-γ, interleukin-4, interleukin-17, and transforming growth factor-β. Results: No significant correlations between selenium and thyroid or immunological parameters were observed. The level of iodine in serum positively correlated with free thyroxine, indicating its importance for maintaining normal thyroid function, as well as with FRAP in serum, suggesting a protective role of iodine-mediated antioxidant activity on thyroid function. Conclusions: Our results underline the complexity of the system of correlations between iodine–selenium–thyroid–immune function. Nevertheless, understanding them may turn out to be crucial for developing preventive and therapeutic strategies in the context of thyroid diseases.

Background: Dietary habits formed during university years influence long-term health, yet evidence comparing gender-specific and cross-country patterns in Central Europe is limited. This study assessed differences in dietary intake between Polish and Slovak university students using standardized FFQ-6 daily intake conversions. Material and methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in February-March 2025 among 574 Polish and Slovak students (77% female; mean age 22.5±2.68 years). Dietary intake was evaluated using the FFQ-6. Gender and country differences were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U tests with effect sizes (r). Results: Female students reported a higher intake of vegetables and fruits, while males consumed significantly more red and processed meat, refined grains, animal fats, and energy drinks (p<0.05). In international comparisons, Polish females showed higher consumption of whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts but also a higher intake of red meat, added fats, and energy drinks. Slovak students reported a higher dairy intake and slightly lower consumption of sweets and sugar-sweetened beverages. Effect sizes were small to moderate. Conclusions: Our findings show meaningful gender-specific and cross-country differences in the dietary patterns of Polish and Slovak university students, highlighting several areas – especially meat, fats, and vegetable intake – where improvements in everyday dietary routines may be beneficial.

Sewage sludge generated in the process of household and industrial wastewater treatment plants should be utilized in line with the principles of sustainable development, taking into account the processes that are an inherent part of the circular economy. The research conducted for this paper has shown that, on average, in Poland between 2019 and 2023, over a million sewage sludge deposits were created; 57% of these were household and 43% were industrial sewage sludge. The generated sewage sludge is processed in four major processes, covering its use: in agriculture (56.09%), thermal processing (20.62%), storage (17.5%), and compost production (4.72%). The analysis of technical and environmental aspects has demonstrated that the available technologies are sufficient to utilize sewage sludge in accordance with the principle of a circular economy, utilizing state-of-the-art technologies. On the other hand, the heavy metals contained in sewage sludge pose a potential threat to human health if the sludge is not properly managed and safety rules are not adhered to in waste management. The research results form a basis for discussion, focusing on both the quality and quantity aspects, leading to the optimization of methods for utilizing sewage sludge in thermal, organic, or material recycling processes to increase the recycling rate of sewage sludge in Poland.

Background: Metabolic syndrome is a multifaceted condition involving lipid and carbohydrate metabolism disorders and hypertension, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Accurate diagnosis and prevention require an interdisciplinary approach that includes both traditional lab tests and modern, non-invasive health assessments. Methods: This study aimed to evaluate metabolic health in adults from the Małopolska Voivodeship by analyzing the relationships between obesity indicators (BMI, waist circumference) and anthropometric, blood, and salivary biomarkers. Sixty-three participants (36 women, 27 men) aged 40–71 underwent body composition analysis (InBody 770), anthropometric measurements, and biochemical tests of blood and saliva. Assessed parameters included body composition (BMI, BFM, FFM, SMM, PBF, VFA, PA), blood pressure, blood biomarkers (glucose, TG, LDL, HDL, HbA1c, insulin, cortisol), and salivary markers (FRAP, DPPH, urea, amylase activity, protein content, pH, buffering capacity). Results: The results showed a strong correlation between body composition and biochemical markers, but the results of the analyzed salivary biomarkers were inconclusive and, in some cases, contradictory to the findings of other authors. Conclusions: Fat mass, cell integrity, and diastolic pressure were key determinants of waist circumference. Our research confirms the validity of using combined diagnostics, bioimpedance, and blood analysis for a comprehensive assessment of metabolic health and indicates the direction for further research using salivary biomarkers. A holistic approach improves risk assessment and strengthens preventive and therapeutic strategies. However, our pilot study showed that the research requires a larger sample size, especially in order to draw representative conclusions regarding salivary biomarkers and their relationship to metabolic health.

Municipal organic waste is one of the types of waste generated mainly in households but also by other producers. The key to managing this waste is to use appropriate treatment processes to reduce its negative impacts on the environment. The composting process involves the decomposition of persistent organic pollutants and their binding with the organic fraction. This study involved quantitative and qualitative research and analyses of organic waste contained in mixed municipal waste and selectively collected waste in Poland between 2020 and 2024. The aim of the study was to compare the final parameters of two types of organic waste after biological treatment, assess their potential management pathways within the circular economy, and discuss their potential relevance to greenhouse gas mitigation. The research results showed that, after applying the same biological processes to the two analyzed organic waste streams, the final products exhibited significant differences in physicochemical parameters, which necessitates the use of different management methods. The first end product can be classified as compost—a potential fertilizer—and must meet quality requirements for an organic soil improver. The second end product can be used for land reclamation if it meets all three criteria: an AT₄ (four-day aerobic respiration activity of the material) value of <10 mgO₂/g dry weight, loss on ignition of less than 35%, and organic carbon content of less than 20% dry weight. The products of the biological treatment of organic waste include fertilizers and stabilized waste intended for further processing.