In this work, non-linear ultrasonic wave techniques have been used to detect the onset of micro-cracking due to steel corrosion in model reinforced concrete elements. The specimens were of prismatic shape with a single steel rebar. The corrosion was forced by admixing an appropriate amount of sodium chloride at the moment of preparing the concrete mix, and by the application of an electric field, using a constant current density power source, and making the steel rebar work as the anode, and an external counter-electrode as the cathode. The preliminary results indicate that the onset of cracking seems to be accompanied by the appearance of higher-harmonic generation at the output signal (harmonic distortion), when the system is excited by the means of an ultrasound wave with a burst central frequency. Other phenomena related to the micro-cracks induced by corrosion, such is the parametric generation with respect to the fundamental amplitude, have not been observed until now.

This work presents results allowing an unequivocal correlation of the observations of strong nonlinear elastic features of ultrasonic waves (values of the nonlinearity parameters exceeding the thresholds corresponding to undamaged states), with the critical events of the corrosion-induced surface cracking of reinforced cement-mortar specimens. These observations point to the possibility of the early detection of cracking using nonlinear ultrasonic (NLU) techniques. Experimental evidence is presented on the existence of active net mass transport processes, due to wick action, in the course of the corrosion tests, in the experimental conditions of this work. These phenomena might explain the observed abrupt shifting of the nonlinear parameter values (typically increasing and then decreasing post-peak, even reaching values typical of the undamaged state), and, partially, the high variability obtained for the values of the nonlinear parameters in damaged (cracked) states. Finally, some consequences are derived from the point of view of use of the NLU techniques in engineering practice, i.e., in surveys aimed at evaluating reinforced concrete structures affected by corrosion.

Shipping traffic is recognised as the main man-noise source of the anthropogenic noise generated in the marine environment. The underwater acoustic pollution is increased due to the increment of the human activity at seas supposing a threat for marine habitats. The ship as acoustic source must be understood and controlled to manage the maritime areas both in time and space to reduce the impact of noise in marine fauna. Shipping noise is mainly composed of flow noise, propeller noise and machinery noise. This research is focused on the analysis and estimation of the underwater radiated noise generated by the vibrations of the onboard machinery or structure-borne noise based on the calculation of the transfer function. This function relates the acceleration levels of the vibrations of the hull’s panels and the radiated noise by them using the radiation efficiency. Different analytical methods to estimate the radiation efficiency are presented and compared with data collected at sea. The measurements are performed acquiring simultaneously acceleration and acoustic levels by means on accelerometers installed on the hull’s panels at different positions and hydrophones deployed close to the bow, middle and stern of the ship. The analysis of the transmission of the vibrations along the ships is performed using the data from different locations of the hydrophones. The quality of the measurements is analysed using the coherence function through the spectral correlation between the measurement of vibrations and acoustic levels. On the other hand, signal-to-noise ratio is computed to verify the strength of the noise sources. The computed transfer function is used to predict the underwater radiated noise from vibrations showing differences less than 2 dB re to 1 μPa².

The aim of this work was to provide further confirmation of the possible use of non-linear ultrasonic techniques for detecting the cracking due to corrosion of steel reinforcements in concrete. To this end accelerated steel corrosion tests have been conducted on model reinforced cement mortar specimens, while monitoring the appearance and width evolution of visible surface cracks, and performing non-linear ultrasonic measurements based on the phenomena of harmonic distortion and intermodulation. A new parameter, based on the difference between the amplitude of the fundamental frequency and the sum of the amplitudes of all the first-order and second-order intermodulation products, has been proposed in this work. The results confirm that the appearance of visible surface micro-cracks are preceded and accompanied by the observation of strong non-linear features in the received signal. Furthermore, the new parameter proposed in this work is as efficient as the relative non-linearity parameters, classically used in harmonic distortion non-linear ultrasonic studies, for detecting the non-linear features associated with the critical events of the cracking of cement mortar due to embedded steel corrosion. A hypothesis has been developed considering the possible effect of the filling of the void space by liquid containing rust products after the formation of new cracks or the enlargement of its width. This filling process, which might be particularly enhanced by net convective transport of liquid, would explain the evolution of the values of all the parameters used for putting in evidence the non-linear elastic features after the critical events of the cracking process.