The integration of digital twins (DTs) in construction is still in its infancy compared to other sectors. However, the potential for optimising project lifecycle management is significant, promising transformative impacts on safety and operational performance. In this study, the evolution of technologies preceding DTs is explored. A detailed description of the various platforms where DTs can be implemented is discussed and parallels are established with other sectors, such as manufacturing and healthcare, highlighting the successful application of DTs in these fields. The key benefits of integrating DTs in the construction industry and complex infrastructure management are assessed, emphasising that the accuracy of asset representation is crucial for their effective utilisation. Moreover, the challenges associated with recording, storing, and accessing both static and dynamic data are discussed, providing insights into the pros and cons of managing data through back-end versus front-end processes. Case studies of a transport railway station and an educational centre illustrate the practical applications and advantages of DTs, such as enhanced visual representation, improved understanding of construction and management dynamics, real-time information integration, and collaborative management processes. This paper advocates for the first steps toward establishing a European definition of DTs and standardising the relevant processes.

The construction industry is a major consumer of raw materials and a significant contributor to environmental emissions. Life cycle assessment (LCA) using digital models is a valuable tool for conducting a science-based analysis to reduce these impacts. However, transferring data from environmental product declarations (EPDs) to BIM for the purpose of sustainability assessment requires significant resources for its interpretation and integration. This study is founded on a comprehensive review of the scientific literature and standards, an analysis of published digital EPDs, and a thorough evaluation of IFC (industry foundation classes), identifying twenty gaps for the automated incorporation of LCA data from construction products into BIM. The identified limitations were assessed using the digital model of a building pilot, applying simplifications to incorporate actual EPD data. This paper presents the identified barriers to the automated incorporation of digital EPDs into BIM, and proposes eleven concrete actions to improve IFC 4.3. While prior studies have analyzed the environmental data in IFC, this research is significant in two key areas. Firstly, it focuses on the direct machine interpretation of environmental information without human intervention. Secondly, it is intended to be directly applicable to a revision of the IFC standards.

Purpose: The ILCD+EPD format provides a solid foundation for EPD digitalisation and is evolving to enhance interoperability and automation. This study analyses the current version’s limitations in digitising Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs), assessing its capacity to ensure traceability, interoperability, and machine readability of environmental data. It also identifies key areas for improvement and proposes enhancements to facilitate integration into digital environments such as BIM and the forthcoming Digital Product Passport (DPP) under the European framework. Methods: The research is based on a review of EPD digitisation, with a special focus on the ILCD+EPD original format developed by InData. Fifty EPDs representative of the Spanish market, belonging to three Programme Operators (POs), were selected and digitised using the EPD Editor and Soda4LCA tools. The information was structured in accordance with the CPEN 2020 version of the ILCD+EPD format (version 1.2) and standardised using a ‘data matrix’, ensuring that the fields corresponded to the standard schema. The results were visualised and validated on the OpenDAP platform and also compared with European experiences (ÖKOBAUDAT, IBU, EPD Norge) to assess the consistency, interoperability and replicability of the process. Results: The results identify critical aspects in the practical use of the ILCD+EPD format, such as clarifying ambiguous fields, incorporating unique identifiers to reduce errors, and enabling automatic interpretation of key information to support full automation of data exchange. The proposed matrix enhances the homogeneity and comparability of digitised EPDs, allowing partial automatic reading and more efficient information management. However, the continued reliance on original PDF formats and heterogeneity among operators still limit interoperability. The discussion also addresses regulatory developments (CPR, EPBD, ISO 22057) and their anticipated impact on the new version 1.3 of the ILCD+EPD format, which has undergone a review and is moving towards European harmonisation. Conclusions: This study analyses whether it would be interesting to harmonise the ILCD+EPD, ISO 22057 and DPP formats by adopting standardised templates and specific data dictionaries for each product category. In addition, it considers the potential development of automatic validation tools and parametric approaches to reduce manual intervention, increase comparability between databases and facilitate the direct incorporation of environmental information into BIM models and life cycle analysis platforms.