Oropouche fever, caused by the Oropouche virus (OROV), has become a significant public health concern. Recent outbreaks highlight its increasing global spread, driven by environmental, social, and ecological factors. The disease presents clinical similarities to other arboviral infections, making accurate diagnosis essential for effective management and prevention. This article examines the epidemiological patterns of Oropouche fever, including its geographic distribution and outbreak drivers. It explores the clinical manifestations of the disease, focusing on common symptoms, complications such as fatal cases and fetal abnormalities, and the necessity of differential diagnosis. The pathophysiology of OROV infection is analyzed, detailing viral entry mechanisms, immune responses, and the role of vectors in transmission. Additionally, we assess diagnostic challenges, comparing serological and molecular methods while identifying their limitations. Therapeutic strategies are also reviewed, including symptomatic treatments and potential antiviral candidates. Findings indicate that OROV infections mimic other arboviral diseases, complicating clinical diagnosis. Current diagnostic tools have limitations in accuracy and accessibility, particularly in resource-limited settings. Symptomatic treatment remains the primary approach, as no specific antiviral therapies or vaccines exist. The study identifies gaps in diagnostic development, vaccine research, and public health surveillance. Oropouche fever threatens global health, necessitating improved surveillance, diagnostic tools, and targeted research efforts. Enhancing epidemiological studies and developing effective vaccines will mitigate its impact. Strengthening public health strategies can help control the spread of OROV and reduce its burden on affected populations.

Monkeypox (Mpox), a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus, has gained global attention due to rising incidence and the emergence of new clades. Understanding the epidemiology, transmission dynamics, and diagnostic challenges associated with the two major clades, Clades I and II, is crucial for outbreak preparedness and control. This review analyzes Mpox clades, highlighting their geographic distribution, virulence, transmissibility, and diagnostic approaches. It also presents recent outbreaks, diagnostic advancements, vaccination strategies, and critical research gaps in Mpox surveillance and response. Clade I, primarily in Central Africa, exhibits the highest virulence with a 5–10% case fatality rate. Clade II, which includes subclades IIa, IIb, and the newly identified Clade Ib, demonstrates lower virulence but higher transmissibility beyond endemic regions. Recent outbreaks (2022–2024), driven by Clade IIb, present atypical clinical presentations and emphasize intimate human-to-human contact as a key transmission route. Polymerase chain reaction, next-generation sequencing, and emerging CRISPR-based diagnostics have improved detection, while modified vaccinia Ankara-based vaccines have shown effectiveness despite challenges in equitable distribution. Addressing critical research gaps, such as clade-specific virulence mechanisms, zoonotic reservoirs, and evolutionary patterns, is essential for improving Mpox surveillance and control. Strengthening genomic surveillance, expanding access to affordable diagnostics, and fostering international collaboration will enhance preparedness for future outbreaks and mitigate the impact of this emerging infectious disease. • Comparison of Mpox virus (MPXV) clades, in geography, virulence, transmission, and clinical outcomes between Clade I, Clade II, and emerging subclades IIb and Ib. • The epidemiology of Mpox focuses on the 2022–2024 global outbreaks of Clade IIb, marked by unusual clinical presentations and fast human-to-human spread in non-endemic areas. • Key advancements in diagnostic technologies like PCR, NGS, and CRISPR assays, improving MPXV detection and clade differentiation. • The effectiveness of MVA-based vaccines against various MPXV clades is presented while highlighting challenges in equitable distribution and region-specific vaccination strategies. • Emerging Mpox research priorities include genomic surveillance, clade-specific virulence, affordable diagnostics, and overcoming socioeconomic barriers to outbreak management.

Breast cancer is a biologically heterogeneous disease that requires accurate diagnosis, risk stratification, treatment selection and longitudinal assessment. Conventional imaging and tissue biopsy remain the mainstays of clinical management. However, tissue sampling represents a specific anatomical site and time point, and may not reflect the molecular heterogeneity or evolution of disease. Liquid biopsy offers a minimally invasive complementary approach, analyzing circulating tumor cells (CTCs), circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) and extracellular vesicles. Applications include molecular characterization, treatment-response assessment, resistance detection and minimal residual disease (MRD) evaluation, which are under investigation or in clinical use. Gene-expression profiles, mutational alterations and epigenetic marks can generate molecular signatures that offer further support for tumor classification and risk stratification, and have demonstrated clinical value in specific breast cancer populations. Advances in next-generation sequencing, digital PCR, proteomic analysis, and artificial intelligence have expanded the analytical capacity for detection and interpretation of circulating and tissue-derived biomarkers. However, biological heterogeneity, low abundance of circulating biomarkers, pre-analytical and analytical variability, standardization of assays and limited prospective evidence for some applications are still major barriers to clinical translation. In this review, we discuss the biological basis, detection technologies, clinical applications and limitations of liquid biopsies and molecular signatures in breast cancer, highlighting multi-omics integration and computational approaches. It distinguishes between promising analytical biomarkers and clinically validated applications and highlights the evidence and methodological needs for wider implementation in precision breast cancer care.