Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are increasingly significant in modern cities due to their potential to reduce air pollution. Precise and real-time estimation of energy consumption for them is imperative for effective itinerary planning and optimizing vehicle systems, which can reduce driving range anxiety and decrease energy costs. As public awareness of data privacy increases, adopting approaches that safeguard data privacy in the context of BEV energy consumption modeling is crucial. Federated Learning (FL) is a promising solution mitigating the risk of exposing sensitive information to third parties by allowing local data to remain on devices and only sharing model updates with a central server. Our work investigates the potential of using FL methods, such as FedAvg, and FedPer, to improve BEV energy consumption prediction while maintaining user privacy. We conducted experiments using data from 10 BEVs under simulated real-world driving conditions. Our results demonstrate that the FedAvg-LSTM model achieved a reduction of up to 67.84% in the MAE value of the prediction results. Furthermore, we explored various real-world scenarios and discussed how FL methods can be employed in those cases. Our findings show that FL methods can effectively improve the performance of BEV energy consumption prediction while maintaining user privacy.

This article develops a distributed cooperative energy management system (EMS) with two distributed control layers for speed-coupling plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). By introducing personalized non-stationary inference, this system can fuse driving behavior and vehicle state information to adaptively adjust power-split control parameters for the improvement of vehicle energy economy. In the on-board control layer, five sets of personalized control parameters are optimized offline using chaos-enhanced accelerated particle swarm optimization (CAPSO). In the distributed control layer, interval type 2 (IT2) fuzzy sets are applied to develop a real-time driving style recognition function. The driving behavior is detected remotely, via the vehicle-to-everything (V2X) network, and downloaded to adaptively adjust the power-split control parameters in the on-board vehicle controller. Hardware-in-the-loop testing is carried out based on the four laboratory driving cycles and four personal driving cycles. The proposed system has been demonstrated with strong robustness that saves energy by up to 5.25% over the equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS), especially for gentle drivers. Even under harsh communication conditions (with signal loss 80+%), it still performs better than the ECMS (by 0.57%) and the series–parallel (SP) control strategy (by 2.66%).