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Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also termed endotoxins, are the major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. In general, endotoxins in the intestine are considered harmless in healthy animals. However, different stressors, such as heat stress, can lead to a compromised gut barrier, resulting in endotoxin translocation. Chickens are considered to be less sensitive to the effects of LPS compared with other species, for example, humans, pigs, or calves, probably because of the lack of the functional-specific TRAM-TRIF signalling pathway (MyD88-independent). Therefore, six LPS preparations (three different strains with two different preparation methods each) were compared in murine macrophages and characterized according to their MyD88-dependent pathway activation. All tested LPS preparations induced a strong inflammatory response after 4 and 24 h on a murine macrophage cell line. However, there was a similar strong response in the gene expression profile as well as production of nitrite oxide and TNF-alpha from LPS of different strains and preparation methods. On the basis of the results of the in vitro study, one LPS preparation was chosen for the subsequent in vivo study with broilers to assess the effect of an oral LPS bolus (E. coli O55:B5 phenol extracted; 2 mg/kg b.w.) during heat stress conditions (10 h, 36 °C). The most pronounced effects were seen in broilers receiving the oral LPS bolus during heat stress conditions. The endotoxin activity in the intestine as well as the serum concentration of the 3-OH C14 (part of LPS) were increased. In addition, an increased expression of genes related to inflammation and stress response (e.g., IL-6, IL-1beta, HSP70) was observed, whereas the expression of genes associated with gut health (e.g., MUC2, FABP2) was decreased. To conclude, an increase of intestinal LPS combined with heat stress can pose a risk to animal health.
Nicole Reisinger; Caroline Emsenhuber; Barbara Doupovec; Elisabeth Mayer; Gerd Schatzmayr; Veronika Nagl; Bertrand Grenier. Endotoxin Translocation and Gut Inflammation Are Increased in Broiler Chickens Receiving an Oral Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Bolus during Heat Stress. Toxins 2020, 12, 622 .
AMA StyleNicole Reisinger, Caroline Emsenhuber, Barbara Doupovec, Elisabeth Mayer, Gerd Schatzmayr, Veronika Nagl, Bertrand Grenier. Endotoxin Translocation and Gut Inflammation Are Increased in Broiler Chickens Receiving an Oral Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Bolus during Heat Stress. Toxins. 2020; 12 (10):622.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicole Reisinger; Caroline Emsenhuber; Barbara Doupovec; Elisabeth Mayer; Gerd Schatzmayr; Veronika Nagl; Bertrand Grenier. 2020. "Endotoxin Translocation and Gut Inflammation Are Increased in Broiler Chickens Receiving an Oral Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Bolus during Heat Stress." Toxins 12, no. 10: 622.
Mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) can negatively affect pig health. However, little is known about their effects on boar semen. We assessed the individual and combined effects of DON and ZEN on boar semen in vitro. In a pretrial, we determined the minimum dose (MiD) of each mycotoxin that induces a significant alteration of sperm progressive motility, as investigated using computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA). In the main trial, the individual and combined effects of each mycotoxin’s MiD on sperm motility and kinetics (CASA analysis), morphology (SpermBlue staining), viability (calcein-propidium iodide staining), membrane functional status (hypoosmotic swelling test), and chromatin integrity (acridine orange staining) were analyzed. Pretrial results suggested a MiD of 50.6 μM and 62.8 μM for DON and ZEN, respectively. In the main trial, DON and ZEN administered at MiD significantly affected CASA parameters (e.g., increase of immotile spermatozoa, reduction of progressive motile spermatozoa), decreased sperm viability, and affected sperm morphology (head abnormalities) and membrane functional status. DON and ZEN showed less than additive effects on most parameters tested and a synergistic effect on viability and on two CASA parameters. In conclusion, DON and ZEN showed individual and combined toxic effects on boar semen in vitro.
Panagiotis Tassis; Ioannis Tsakmakidis; Veronika Nagl; Nicole Reisinger; Eleni Tzika; Christiane Gruber-Dorninger; Ilias Michos; Nikolaos Mittas; Athina Basioura; Dian Schatzmayr. Individual and Combined In Vitro Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on Boar Semen. Toxins 2020, 12, 495 .
AMA StylePanagiotis Tassis, Ioannis Tsakmakidis, Veronika Nagl, Nicole Reisinger, Eleni Tzika, Christiane Gruber-Dorninger, Ilias Michos, Nikolaos Mittas, Athina Basioura, Dian Schatzmayr. Individual and Combined In Vitro Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on Boar Semen. Toxins. 2020; 12 (8):495.
Chicago/Turabian StylePanagiotis Tassis; Ioannis Tsakmakidis; Veronika Nagl; Nicole Reisinger; Eleni Tzika; Christiane Gruber-Dorninger; Ilias Michos; Nikolaos Mittas; Athina Basioura; Dian Schatzmayr. 2020. "Individual and Combined In Vitro Effects of Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on Boar Semen." Toxins 12, no. 8: 495.
Forages are important components of dairy cattle rations but might harbor a plethora of mycotoxins. Ruminants are considered to be less susceptible to the adverse health effects of mycotoxins, mainly because the ruminal microflora degrades certain mycotoxins. Yet, impairment of the ruminal degradation capacity or high ruminal stability of toxins can entail that the intestinal epithelium is exposed to significant mycotoxin amounts. The aims of our study were to assess i) the mycotoxin occurrence in maize silage and ii) the cytotoxicity of relevant mycotoxins on bovine intestinal cells. In total, 158 maize silage samples were collected from European dairy cattle farms. LC-MS/MS-based analysis of 61 mycotoxins revealed the presence of emerging mycotoxins (e.g. emodin, culmorin, enniatin B1, enniatin B, and beauvericin) in more than 70% of samples. Among the regulated mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were most frequently detected (67.7%). Overall, 87% of maize silages contained more than five mycotoxins. Using an in vitro model with calf small intestinal epithelial cells B, the cytotoxicity of deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisin B1 and enniatin B was evaluated (0–200 µM). Absolute IC50 values varied in dependence of employed assay and were 1.2–3.6 µM, 0.8–1.0 µM, 8.6–18.3 µM, and 4.0–6.7 µM for deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisin B1, and enniatin B, respectively. Results highlight the potential relevance of mycotoxins for bovine gut health, a previously neglected target in ruminants.
Nicole Reisinger; Sonja Schürer-Waldheim; Elisabeth Mayer; Sandra Debevere; Gunther Antonissen; Michael Sulyok; Veronika Nagl. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins 2019, 11, 577 .
AMA StyleNicole Reisinger, Sonja Schürer-Waldheim, Elisabeth Mayer, Sandra Debevere, Gunther Antonissen, Michael Sulyok, Veronika Nagl. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins. 2019; 11 (10):577.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicole Reisinger; Sonja Schürer-Waldheim; Elisabeth Mayer; Sandra Debevere; Gunther Antonissen; Michael Sulyok; Veronika Nagl. 2019. "Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage—A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health?" Toxins 11, no. 10: 577.
Zearalenone (ZEN)-degrading enzymes are a promising strategy to counteract the negative effects of this mycotoxin in livestock. The reaction products of such enzymes need to be thoroughly characterized before technological application as a feed additive can be envisaged. Here, we evaluated the estrogenic activity of the metabolites hydrolyzed zearalenone (HZEN) and decarboxylated hydrolyzed zearalenone (DHZEN) formed by hydrolysis of ZEN by the zearalenone-lactonase Zhd101p. ZEN, HZEN, and DHZEN were tested in two in vitro models, the MCF-7 cell proliferation assay (0.01-500 nM) and an estrogen-sensitive yeast bioassay (1-10,000 nM). In addition, we compared the impact of dietary ZEN (4.58 mg/kg) and equimolar dietary concentrations of HZEN and DHZEN on reproductive tract morphology as well as uterine mRNA and microRNA expression in female piglets (n = 6, four weeks exposure). While ZEN increased cell proliferation and reporter gene transcription, neither HZEN nor DHZEN elicited an estrogenic response, suggesting that these metabolites are at least 50-10,000 times less estrogenic than ZEN in vitro. In piglets, HZEN and DHZEN did not increase vulva size or uterus weight. Moreover, RNA transcripts altered upon ZEN treatment (EBAG9, miR-135a-5p, miR-187-3p and miR-204-5p) were unaffected by HZEN and DHZEN. Our study shows that both metabolites exhibit markedly reduced estrogenicity in vitro and in vivo, and thus provides an important basis for further evaluation of ZEN-degrading enzymes.
Sebastian Fruhauf; Barbara Novak; Veronika Nagl; Matthias Hackl; Doris Hartinger; Valentina Rainer; Silvia Labudová; Gerhard Adam; Markus Aleschko; Wulf-Dieter Moll; Michaela Thamhesl; Bertrand Grenier. Biotransformation of the Mycotoxin Zearalenone to its Metabolites Hydrolyzed Zearalenone (HZEN) and Decarboxylated Hydrolyzed Zearalenone (DHZEN) Diminishes its Estrogenicity In Vitro and In Vivo. Toxins 2019, 11, 481 .
AMA StyleSebastian Fruhauf, Barbara Novak, Veronika Nagl, Matthias Hackl, Doris Hartinger, Valentina Rainer, Silvia Labudová, Gerhard Adam, Markus Aleschko, Wulf-Dieter Moll, Michaela Thamhesl, Bertrand Grenier. Biotransformation of the Mycotoxin Zearalenone to its Metabolites Hydrolyzed Zearalenone (HZEN) and Decarboxylated Hydrolyzed Zearalenone (DHZEN) Diminishes its Estrogenicity In Vitro and In Vivo. Toxins. 2019; 11 (8):481.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSebastian Fruhauf; Barbara Novak; Veronika Nagl; Matthias Hackl; Doris Hartinger; Valentina Rainer; Silvia Labudová; Gerhard Adam; Markus Aleschko; Wulf-Dieter Moll; Michaela Thamhesl; Bertrand Grenier. 2019. "Biotransformation of the Mycotoxin Zearalenone to its Metabolites Hydrolyzed Zearalenone (HZEN) and Decarboxylated Hydrolyzed Zearalenone (DHZEN) Diminishes its Estrogenicity In Vitro and In Vivo." Toxins 11, no. 8: 481.
Glucuronidation is a major phase II conjugation pathway in mammals, playing an important role in the detoxification and biotransformation of xenobiotics including mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON). Culmorin (CUL), a potentially co-occurring Fusarium metabolite, was recently found to inhibit the corresponding detoxification reaction in plants, namely DON-glucoside formation, raising the question whether CUL might affect also the mammalian counterpart. Using cell-free conditions, CUL when present equimolar (67 µM) or in fivefold excess, suppressed DON glucuronidation by human liver microsomes, reducing the formation of DON-15-glucuronide by 15 and 50%, and DON-3-glucuronide by 30 and 50%, respectively. Substantial inhibitory effects on DON glucuronidation up to 100% were found using the human recombinant uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) 2B4 and 2B7, applying a tenfold excess of CUL (100 µM). In addition, we observed the formation of a novel metabolite of CUL, CUL-11-glucuronide, identified for the first time in vitro as well as in vivo in piglet and human urine samples. Despite the observed potency of CUL to inhibit glucuronidation, no significant synergistic toxicity on cell viability was observed in combinations of CUL (0.1–100 µM) and DON (0.01–10 µM) in HT-29 and HepG2 cells, presumably reflecting the limited capacity of the tested cell lines for DON glucuronidation. However, in humans, glucuronidation is known to represent the main detoxification pathway for DON. The present results, including the identification of CUL-11-glucuronide in urine samples of piglets and humans, underline the necessity of further studies on the relevance of CUL as a potentially co-occurring modulator of DON toxicokinetics in vivo.
Lydia Woelflingseder; Benedikt Warth; Immina Vierheilig; Heidi Schwartz-Zimmermann; Christian Hametner; Veronika Nagl; Barbara Novak; Bojan Šarkanj; Franz Berthiller; Gerhard Adam; Doris Marko. The Fusarium metabolite culmorin suppresses the in vitro glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol. Archives of Toxicology 2019, 93, 1729 -1743.
AMA StyleLydia Woelflingseder, Benedikt Warth, Immina Vierheilig, Heidi Schwartz-Zimmermann, Christian Hametner, Veronika Nagl, Barbara Novak, Bojan Šarkanj, Franz Berthiller, Gerhard Adam, Doris Marko. The Fusarium metabolite culmorin suppresses the in vitro glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol. Archives of Toxicology. 2019; 93 (6):1729-1743.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLydia Woelflingseder; Benedikt Warth; Immina Vierheilig; Heidi Schwartz-Zimmermann; Christian Hametner; Veronika Nagl; Barbara Novak; Bojan Šarkanj; Franz Berthiller; Gerhard Adam; Doris Marko. 2019. "The Fusarium metabolite culmorin suppresses the in vitro glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol." Archives of Toxicology 93, no. 6: 1729-1743.
The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) causes functional and morphological alterations in reproductive organs of pigs. In the field, diagnosis of ZEN-induced disorders is often challenging, as relevant feed lots are no longer available, or feed analysis results are not conclusive. Here, we report a field case of hyperestrogenism in newborn piglets. Surprisingly, more than 50 fungal metabolites were detected in hay pellets fed to gestating sows, including ZEN and its modified form zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN-14-S). Despite the broad contamination range in this unconventional feed component, a definite diagnosis of mycotoxicosis could not be achieved. In this context, current limitations regarding the confirmation of suspected cases of ZEN-induced disorders are discussed, covering both feed analysis and the biomarker approach. A piglet producer with 200 sows experienced a sudden increase in suckling piglet losses up to 30% by lower vitality and crushing. Predominant clinical signs were splay legs and signs of hyperestrogenism such as swollen and reddened vulvae in newborn piglets. The first differential diagnosis was ZEN mycotoxicosis although feed batches had not been changed for months with the exception of ground hay pellets, which had been included in the diet five months before. Analysis of hay pellets resulted in a sum value of ZEN and its modified forms of more than 1000 μg/kg, with ZEN-14-S alone accounting for 530 μg/kg. Considering the inclusion rate of 7% in the diet for gestating sows, the severe impact of the additional ZEN load due to the contaminated hay pellets seemed unrealistic but could not be completely excluded either. One month after hay pellets had been removed from the diet no further clinical signs were observed. Enrichment materials and other fibre sources can contain significant amounts of mycotoxins and should be therefore included in feed analysis. Adequate methods for broad spectrum mycotoxin determination, including modified mycotoxins, are important. As highlighted by this field case, there is a need to establish reliable biomarkers for ZEN exposure in pigs. Currently, available biomarkers do not allow a solid prediction of the ZEN intake of pigs under field conditions, which limits their application to experimental studies.
Isabel Hennig-Pauka; Franz-Josef Koch; Simone Schaumberger; Bettina Woechtl; Johannes Novak; Michael Sulyok; Veronika Nagl. Current challenges in the diagnosis of zearalenone toxicosis as illustrated by a field case of hyperestrogenism in suckling piglets. Porcine Health Management 2018, 4, 18 .
AMA StyleIsabel Hennig-Pauka, Franz-Josef Koch, Simone Schaumberger, Bettina Woechtl, Johannes Novak, Michael Sulyok, Veronika Nagl. Current challenges in the diagnosis of zearalenone toxicosis as illustrated by a field case of hyperestrogenism in suckling piglets. Porcine Health Management. 2018; 4 (1):18.
Chicago/Turabian StyleIsabel Hennig-Pauka; Franz-Josef Koch; Simone Schaumberger; Bettina Woechtl; Johannes Novak; Michael Sulyok; Veronika Nagl. 2018. "Current challenges in the diagnosis of zearalenone toxicosis as illustrated by a field case of hyperestrogenism in suckling piglets." Porcine Health Management 4, no. 1: 18.
The original article can be found online.
Heidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann; Christian Hametner; Veronika Nagl; Iris Fiby; Lukas Macheiner; Janine Winkler; Sven Dänicke; Erica Clark; James J. Pestka; Franz Berthiller. Correction to: Glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol (DON) by different animal species: identification of iso-DON glucuronides and iso-deepoxy-DON glucuronides as novel DON metabolites in pigs, rats, mice, and cows. Archives of Toxicology 2018, 92, 3245 -3246.
AMA StyleHeidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann, Christian Hametner, Veronika Nagl, Iris Fiby, Lukas Macheiner, Janine Winkler, Sven Dänicke, Erica Clark, James J. Pestka, Franz Berthiller. Correction to: Glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol (DON) by different animal species: identification of iso-DON glucuronides and iso-deepoxy-DON glucuronides as novel DON metabolites in pigs, rats, mice, and cows. Archives of Toxicology. 2018; 92 (10):3245-3246.
Chicago/Turabian StyleHeidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann; Christian Hametner; Veronika Nagl; Iris Fiby; Lukas Macheiner; Janine Winkler; Sven Dänicke; Erica Clark; James J. Pestka; Franz Berthiller. 2018. "Correction to: Glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol (DON) by different animal species: identification of iso-DON glucuronides and iso-deepoxy-DON glucuronides as novel DON metabolites in pigs, rats, mice, and cows." Archives of Toxicology 92, no. 10: 3245-3246.
One of the most important hoof diseases is laminitis. Yet, the pathology of laminitis is not fully understood. Different bacterial toxins, e.g. endotoxins or exotoxins, seem to play an important role. Additionally, ingestion of mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, might contribute to the onset of laminitis. In this respect, fumonsins are of special interest since horses are regarded as species most susceptible to this group of mycotoxins. The aim of our study was to investigate the influence of fumonisin B1 (FB1) on primary isolated epidermal and dermal hoof cells, as well as on the lamellar tissue integrity and sphingolipid metabolism of hoof explants in vitro. There was no effect of FB1 at any concentration on dermal or epidermal cells. However, FB1 significantly reduced the separation force of explants after 24 h of incubation. The Sa/So ratio was significantly increased in supernatants of explants incubated with FB1 (2.5–10 µg/mL) after 24 h. Observed effects on Sa/So ratio were linked to significantly increased sphinganine concentrations. Our study showed that FB1 impairs the sphingolipid metabolism of explants and reduces lamellar integrity at non-cytotoxic concentrations. FB1 might, therefore, affect hoof health. Further in vitro and in vivo studies are necessary to elucidate the effects of FB1 on the equine hoof in more detail.
Nicole Reisinger; Ilse Dohnal; Veronika Nagl; Simone Schaumberger; Gerd Schatzmayr; Elisabeth Mayer. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) Induces Lamellar Separation and Alters Sphingolipid Metabolism of In Vitro Cultured Hoof Explants. Toxins 2016, 8, 89 .
AMA StyleNicole Reisinger, Ilse Dohnal, Veronika Nagl, Simone Schaumberger, Gerd Schatzmayr, Elisabeth Mayer. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) Induces Lamellar Separation and Alters Sphingolipid Metabolism of In Vitro Cultured Hoof Explants. Toxins. 2016; 8 (4):89.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicole Reisinger; Ilse Dohnal; Veronika Nagl; Simone Schaumberger; Gerd Schatzmayr; Elisabeth Mayer. 2016. "Fumonisin B1 (FB1) Induces Lamellar Separation and Alters Sphingolipid Metabolism of In Vitro Cultured Hoof Explants." Toxins 8, no. 4: 89.
The mycotoxin fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a frequent contaminant of feed and causes various adverse health effects in domestic animals. Hence, effective strategies are needed to prevent the impact of fumonisins on livestock productivity. Here we evaluated the capability of the fumonisin carboxylesterase FumD to degrade FB1 to its less toxic metabolite hydrolyzed FB1 (HFB1) in the gastrointestinal tract of turkeys and pigs. First, an ex vivo pig model was used to examine the activity of FumD under digestive conditions. Within 2 h of incubation with FumD, FB1 was completely degraded to HFB1 in the duodenum and jejunum, respectively. To test the efficacy of the commercial application of FumD (FUMzyme) in vivo, female turkeys (n = 5) received either basal feed (CON), fumonisin-contaminated feed (15 mg/kg FB1+FB2; FB) or fumonisin-contaminated feed supplemented with FUMzyme (15 U/kg; FB+FUMzyme) for 14 days ad libitum. Addition of FUMzyme resulted in significantly decreased levels of FB1 in excreta, whereas HFB1 concentrations were significantly increased. Compared to the FB group (0.24 ± 0.02), the mean serum sphinganine-to-sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio was significantly reduced in the FB+FUMzyme group (0.19 ± 0.02), thus resembling values of the CON group (0.16 ± 0.02). Similarly, exposure of piglets (n = 10) to 2 mg/kg FB1+FB2 for 42 days caused significantly elevated serum Sa/So ratios (0.39 ± 0.15) compared to the CON group (0.14 ± 0.01). Supplementation with FUMzyme (60 U/kg) resulted in gastrointestinal degradation of FB1 and unaffected Sa/So ratios (0.16 ± 0.02). Thus, the carboxylesterase FumD represents an effective strategy to detoxify FB1 in the digestive tract of turkeys and pigs.
Sabine Masching; Karin Naehrer; Heidi-Elisabeth Schwartz-Zimmermann; Mihai Sărăndan; Simone Schaumberger; Ilse Dohnal; Veronika Nagl; Dian Schatzmayr. Gastrointestinal Degradation of Fumonisin B1 by Carboxylesterase FumD Prevents Fumonisin Induced Alteration of Sphingolipid Metabolism in Turkey and Swine. Toxins 2016, 8, 84 .
AMA StyleSabine Masching, Karin Naehrer, Heidi-Elisabeth Schwartz-Zimmermann, Mihai Sărăndan, Simone Schaumberger, Ilse Dohnal, Veronika Nagl, Dian Schatzmayr. Gastrointestinal Degradation of Fumonisin B1 by Carboxylesterase FumD Prevents Fumonisin Induced Alteration of Sphingolipid Metabolism in Turkey and Swine. Toxins. 2016; 8 (3):84.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSabine Masching; Karin Naehrer; Heidi-Elisabeth Schwartz-Zimmermann; Mihai Sărăndan; Simone Schaumberger; Ilse Dohnal; Veronika Nagl; Dian Schatzmayr. 2016. "Gastrointestinal Degradation of Fumonisin B1 by Carboxylesterase FumD Prevents Fumonisin Induced Alteration of Sphingolipid Metabolism in Turkey and Swine." Toxins 8, no. 3: 84.
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin regularly occurring in cereals. Rats are often used to study toxicokinetics of DON and related compounds, yet only about 30 % of the administered dose is typically recovered. Recently, it was reported that DON is partly metabolised to previously undetected DON- and deepoxy-DON (DOM) sulfonate in rats and tentative structures were proposed. The present work describes the production and characterisation of DON-, DOM- and DON-3-glucoside (D3G) sulfonates of three different series; the development and validation of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based methods for determination of DON, DOM, D3G and their sulfonates in rat faeces and urine; and application of the methods to samples from a DON and D3G feeding trial with rats. In addition to previously produced DON sulfonates (DONS) 1, 2 and 3, D3G sulfonates 1, 2 and 3; and DOM sulfonates (DOMS) 2 and 3 were synthesised, purified and characterised. The developed methods showed apparent recoveries of all investigated compounds between 68 and 151 % in faeces and between 48 and 113 % in urine. The recovery of DON, D3G and their metabolites from faeces and urine of rats (n = 6) administered in a single dose of 2.0 mg/kg b.w. DON or the equimolar amount of D3G was 75 ± 9 % for the DON group and 68 ± 8 % for the D3G group. DON-, DOM- and D3G sulfonates excreted in faeces accounted for 48 and 47 % of the total amount of administered DON and D3G. Urinary excretion of sulfonates was DOMS 2 was predominant thereafter. The developed methods can also be used for investigation of DON (conjugate) sulfonate formation in other animal species. Graphical Abstract
Heidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann; Christian Hametner; Veronika Nagl; Veronika Slavik; Wulf-Dieter Moll; Franz Berthiller. Deoxynivalenol (DON) sulfonates as major DON metabolites in rats: from identification to biomarker method development, validation and application. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 2014, 406, 7911 -7924.
AMA StyleHeidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann, Christian Hametner, Veronika Nagl, Veronika Slavik, Wulf-Dieter Moll, Franz Berthiller. Deoxynivalenol (DON) sulfonates as major DON metabolites in rats: from identification to biomarker method development, validation and application. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2014; 406 (30):7911-7924.
Chicago/Turabian StyleHeidi E. Schwartz-Zimmermann; Christian Hametner; Veronika Nagl; Veronika Slavik; Wulf-Dieter Moll; Franz Berthiller. 2014. "Deoxynivalenol (DON) sulfonates as major DON metabolites in rats: from identification to biomarker method development, validation and application." Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 406, no. 30: 7911-7924.