The rapid evolution of healthcare technology is being driven by advancements in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), BioMEMS (Biological MEMS), and the expanding concept of the Internet of Bodies (IoB). This review explores the convergence of these three domains and their transformative impact on personalized medicine (PM), with a focus on smart, connected biomedical devices. Starting from the historical development of MEMS for medical sensing and diagnostics, the review traces the emergence of BioMEMS as biocompatible, minimally invasive solutions for continuous monitoring and real-time intervention. The integration of such devices within the IoB ecosystem enables data-driven, remote, and predictive healthcare, offering tailored diagnostics and treatment for chronic and acute conditions alike. The paper classifies IoB-associated technologies into non-invasive, invasive, and incorporated devices, reviewing wearable systems such as smart bracelets, e-tattoos, and smart footwear, as well as internal devices including implantable and ingestible. Alongside these opportunities, significant challenges persist, particularly in device biocompatibility, data interoperability, cybersecurity, and ethical regulation. By synthesizing recent advances and critical perspectives, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current landscape, clinical potential, and future directions of MEMS, BioMEMS, and IoB-enabled personalized healthcare.

Many principles and methods have been described in literature for measuring relative humidity (RH) and several types of materials have been employed as RH sensing layers [1,2].

The relative humidity (RH) sensing response of a chemoresistive sensor using a novel ternary hybrid nanocomposite film as a sensing element is presented. The sensitive layer was obtained by employing the drop-casting technique for depositing a thin film of nanocomposite between the electrodes of an interdigitated (IDT) structure. The sensing support structure consists of an IDT dual-comb structure fabricated on a oSi-SiO₂ substrate. The IDT comprises chromium, as an adhesion layer (10 nm thickness), and a gold layer (100 nm thickness). The sensing capability of a novel thin film based on a ternary hybrid made of oxidated carbon nanohorns–titanium dioxide–polyvinylpyrrolidone (CNHox/TiO₂/PVP) nanocomposite was investigated by applying a direct current with known intensity between the two electrodes of the sensing structure, and measuring the resulting voltage difference, while varying the RH from 0% to 100% in a humid nitrogen atmosphere. The ternary hybrid-based thin film’s resistance increased when the sensors were exposed to relative humidity ranging from 0 to 100%. It was found that the performance of the new chemoresistive sensor is consistent with that of the capacitive commercial sensor used as a benchmark. Raman spectroscopy was used to provide information on the composition of the sensing layer and on potential interactions between constituents. Several sensing mechanisms were considered and discussed, based on the interaction of water molecules with each component of the ternary nanohybrid. The sensing results obtained lead to the conclusion that the synergic effect of the p-type semiconductor behavior of the CNHox and the PVP swelling process plays a pivotal role in the overall resistance decrease of the sensitive film.

In recent years, carbon nano-onions (CNOs), together with their functionalized derivatives, nanocomposites, and nanohybrids, have attracted increasing attention as sensing materials for monitoring relative humidity (RH), gases, and temperature. Their concentric graphitic structure provides good electrical conductivity, chemical and thermal stability, accessible surface sites, tunable surface chemistry, and compatibility with polymer matrices and flexible substrates. This review highlights recent advances in the synthesis and functionalization of CNOs and examines their integration into chemiresistive, surface acoustic wave, flexible, and printed sensing platforms. Particular attention is devoted to pristine and oxidized CNOs, heteroatom-doped materials, and composites incorporating hydrophilic or conducting polymers, metal oxides, and other functional fillers. CNO-based sensing layers demonstrate room-temperature (RT) detection of RH, hydrogen, ammonia, acetone, ethanol, isopropanol, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other volatile organic compounds. In addition, CNOs and CNO–polymer films exhibit significant temperature-dependent resistance variations, supporting their potential use in flexible and wearable temperature sensors. Although several CNO-based devices show superior performance in sensitivity, response, recovery characteristics, mechanical flexibility, and low-power operation, the studies on CNOs available in the literature remain limited compared with those on carbon nanotubes, graphene derivatives, and other carbonaceous materials. Further progress on CNO-based structures requires reproducible, large-scale synthesis; improved film uniformity and selectivity; standardized testing; compensation for temperature–humidity cross-sensitivity; and long-term stability studies. This review concludes by highlighting research directions to bridge the gap between laboratory prototypes and commercially viable CNO-based sensing devices.

In recent years, carbon nano-onions (CNOs), together with their functionalized derivatives, nanocomposites, and nanohybrids, have attracted increasing attention as sensing materials for monitoring relative humidity (RH), gases, and temperature. Their concentric graphitic structure provides good electrical conductivity, chemical and thermal stability, accessible surface sites, tunable surface chemistry, and compatibility with polymer matrices and flexible substrates. This review highlights recent advances in the synthesis and functionalization of CNOs and examines their integration into chemiresistive, surface acoustic wave, flexible, and printed sensing platforms. Particular attention is devoted to pristine and oxidized CNOs, heteroatom-doped materials, and composites incorporating hydrophilic or conducting polymers, metal oxides, and other functional fillers. CNOs-based sensing layers demonstrate room-temperature (RT) detection of RH, hydrogen, ammonia, acetone, ethanol, isopropanol, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other volatile organic compounds. In addition, CNOs and CNOs–polymer films exhibit significant temperature-dependent variations in resistance, supporting their potential use in flexible and wearable temperature sensors. Although several CNOs-based devices show superior performance in sensitivity, response, recovery characteristics, mechanical flexibility, and low-power operation, the studies on CNOs available in the literature remain limited compared with those on carbon nanotubes, graphene derivatives, and other carbonaceous materials. Further progress on CNOs-based structures requires reproducible, large-scale synthesis; improved film uniformity and selectivity; standardized testing; compensation for temperature–humidity cross-sensitivity; and long-term stability studies. This review concludes by highlighting research directions to bridge the gap between laboratory prototypes and commercially viable CNOs-based sensing devices.