Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by Fusarium graminearum (Fg), is a major disease of wheat not only due to crop yield losses but also because of food safety concerns, since Fg produces toxic trichotecenes, such as deoxynivalenol (DON). Different Trichoderma strains have shown biocontrol efficacy against various Fusarium spp. in a wide variety of pathosystems. In this work, the efficacy of T. asperellum T25, T. harzianum T136 and T. simmonsii T137, was assessed against Fg ITEM 124 in in vitro tests, which included dual cultures, as well as cellulose and cellophane membrane assays. The three Trichoderma strains inhibited Fg growth to varying degrees. However, only T25 and T136 demonstrated control of FHB in wheat when applied to spikes. By quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) we analysed the expression of eight plant defence-related marker genes in wheat spikes inoculated with Trichoderma, or not, and subsequently infected with Fg. Only wheat spikes pre-treated with T25 or T136 look to activate the salicylic acid-dependent defence, in response to pathogen infection. Expression of tri genes, involved in DON biosynthesis, was analysed by qPCR in dual-culture Trichoderma-Fg confrontations in two different media, and in the plant spikes. Confrontation results indicated that tri gene expression depends on the Trichoderma strain and the culture medium, but the three Trichoderma strains reduced the expression of tri5 in the plant. Results show that T. asperellum T25 reduced FHB disease index by more than 60 %, and was the most effective biocontrol agent, employing direct mechanisms to limit Fg growth and indirect mechanisms by priming local plant defences.

Many Fusarium species cause serious diseases for cereal cultivation. These include Fusarium head blight and crown rot on wheat and bakanae disease on rice. These represent a major concern both in terms of food security and food safety. The latter is connected with the risk of mycotoxin contamination of grains. Biological control has proven its potential for controlling head blight and crown rot diseases of cereals caused by Fusarium species in a number of studies, and indeed several commercial products are under development. We review current knowledge of the mechanisms underlying biological control with a focus on fungal biocontrol agents, and also include challenges related to co-occurrence of Fusarium species. Several of the established biological control mechanisms (antibiosis, competition, hyperparasitism and induced resistance) can act simultaneously, thus resulting in disease control and, consequently, reduction of mycotoxin contamination. We also review the biological roles of some of the many mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species, and the mechanisms by which they are detoxified by cereal enzymes or by other fungi and how biological control agents (BCAs) can stimulate their degradation. Finally, the effect of biocontrol agents on the resident microbiota, as well as the effect of the resident microbiota on the performances of BCAs, are discussed. New perspectives on the use of biocontrol agents for the management of Fusarium diseases on cereals.

Bio-based coatings enriched with essential oils (EOs) represent a promising alternative to synthetic preservatives to extend strawberries’ shelf-life. This study evaluated the effects of chitosan (CHT) formulations containing three selected EOs (Illicium verum, Citrus sinensis, and Citrus limon) on the volatile profile, sensory quality, and antifungal activity of strawberry fruits. Volatile emissions were characterized by Headspace Solid Phase Micro-Extraction/Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, while sensory properties were assessed using Quantitative Descriptive Analysis. Antifungal activity was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo against Botrytis cinerea. Chitosan alone slightly modified the volatile profile, while EO-enriched coatings induced marked and concentration-dependent changes, reflecting the chemical composition of the incorporated EOs. Among the tested formulations, CHT combined with 1% C. sinensis EO provided the best balance between preservation of the characteristic strawberry aroma and overall sensory acceptance. In vitro assays showed that EO volatiles, particularly from C. sinensis and I. verum, significantly inhibited fungal growth, while diffusible compounds were less effective. In vivo, EO-containing coatings reduced disease incidence and severity by approximately 50%. These findings highlight the potential of CHT–EO coatings as sustainable options for postharvest preservation, although optimization of EO type and concentration is crucial to balance sensory quality and antimicrobial efficacy.