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Marcel Mengelers
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Department of Food Safety, NL-3721 Bilthoven, The Netherlands

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Journal article
Published: 08 August 2019 in Toxins
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Biomarkers for the determination of the dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) have been proposed in the past but so far no quantification of their use in humans has been carried out. Following a human intervention study with two mycotoxins, namely DON and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON3G), the renal excretion of these compounds, including their phase II metabolites, was analysed. The purpose was to develop biokinetic models that can be used to determine: (1) the preferred (set of) urinary biomarker(s), (2) the preferred urinary collection period, and (3) a method to estimate the dietary exposure to these mycotoxins. Twenty adult volunteers were restricted in consuming cereals and cereal-based foods for 4 days. At day 3, a single dose of 1 µg/kg body weight of DON or DON3G was orally administered to 16 volunteers; 4 volunteers served as control. All individual urine discharges were collected during 24 h after administration. The metabolism and renal excretion could be described by a biokinetic model using three physiological compartments (gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidneys). Kinetic analysis revealed a complete recovery of the renal excretion of total DON (mainly DON and its glucuronides) within 24 h after administration of DON or DON3G. The so-called ‘reverse dosimetry’ factor was used to determine the preferred (set of) biomarker(s) and to estimate the dietary intake of the parent compounds in the future. The fact that DON3G was absorbed and mainly excreted as DON and its glucuronides confirms that DON3G (as well as other modified forms) should be taken into account in the exposure and risk assessment of this group of mycotoxins.

ACS Style

Marcel Mengelers; Marco Zeilmaker; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Rudolf Hoogenveen. Biomonitoring of Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in Human Volunteers: Renal Excretion Profiles. Toxins 2019, 11, 466 .

AMA Style

Marcel Mengelers, Marco Zeilmaker, Arnau Vidal, Marthe De Boevre, Sarah De Saeger, Rudolf Hoogenveen. Biomonitoring of Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in Human Volunteers: Renal Excretion Profiles. Toxins. 2019; 11 (8):466.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Marcel Mengelers; Marco Zeilmaker; Arnau Vidal; Marthe De Boevre; Sarah De Saeger; Rudolf Hoogenveen. 2019. "Biomonitoring of Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in Human Volunteers: Renal Excretion Profiles." Toxins 11, no. 8: 466.

Journal article
Published: 02 November 2016 in World Mycotoxin Journal
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In this review, five strategies to estimate mycotoxin exposure of a (sub-)population via food, including data collection, are discussed with the aim to identify the added values and limitations of each strategy for risk assessment of these chemicals. The well-established point estimate, observed individual mean, probabilistic and duplicate diet strategies are addressed, as well as the emerging human biomonitoring strategy. All five exposure assessment strategies allow the estimation of chronic (long-term) exposure to mycotoxins, and, with the exception of the observed individual mean strategy, also acute (short-term) exposure. Methods for data collection, i.e. food consumption surveys, food monitoring studies and total diet studies are discussed. In food monitoring studies, the driving force is often enforcement of legal limits, and, consequently, data are often generated with relatively high limits of quantification and targeted at products suspected to contain mycotoxin levels above these legal limits. Total diet studies provide a solid base for chronic exposure assessments since they provide mycotoxin levels in food based on well-defined samples and including the effect of food preparation. Duplicate diet studies and human biomonitoring studies reveal the actual exposure but often involve a restricted group of human volunteers and a limited time period. Human biomonitoring studies may also include exposure to mycotoxins from other sources than food, and exposure to modified mycotoxins that may not be detected with current analytical methods. Low limits of quantification are required for analytical methods applied for data collection to avoid large uncertainties in the exposure due to high numbers of left censored data, i.e. with levels below the limit of quantification.

ACS Style

M. De Nijs; M.J.B. Mengelers; P.E. Boon; E. Heyndrickx; L.A.P. Hoogenboom; P. Lopez; Hans Mol. Strategies for estimating human exposure to mycotoxins via food. World Mycotoxin Journal 2016, 9, 831 -845.

AMA Style

M. De Nijs, M.J.B. Mengelers, P.E. Boon, E. Heyndrickx, L.A.P. Hoogenboom, P. Lopez, Hans Mol. Strategies for estimating human exposure to mycotoxins via food. World Mycotoxin Journal. 2016; 9 (5):831-845.

Chicago/Turabian Style

M. De Nijs; M.J.B. Mengelers; P.E. Boon; E. Heyndrickx; L.A.P. Hoogenboom; P. Lopez; Hans Mol. 2016. "Strategies for estimating human exposure to mycotoxins via food." World Mycotoxin Journal 9, no. 5: 831-845.

Journal article
Published: 01 February 2016 in World Mycotoxin Journal
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The occurrence of 59 natural toxins was determined in 88 composite food and drink samples of a mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study performed in the Netherlands in 2013. Composite food samples were prepared by pooling foods from a food category (as consumed, e.g. peeled, cooked, etc.) according to their consumption by population groups in the Netherlands. A multi-targeted method based on QuEChERs extraction, dilute and shoot and analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was applied to the 88 composite samples. Dedicated methods with lower detection limits for patulin, aflatoxins and trichothecenes were also applied to specific food types. Thirty samples (34%) were positive for one or more mycotoxins. Patulin, aflatoxin M1, zearalenone and plant toxins, with the exception of scopolamine in liquorice, were not detected in any of the composite samples. Aflatoxin B1 was only detected, but not at quantifiable levels, in the composites that contained peanuts. Fumonisin B1 was only found at 18 μg/kg in breakfast cereals consumed by the population group of 7-69 years, whereas ochratoxin A occurred at low levels around 1 μg/kg in liquorice, legumes and coffee. Grains and grain-based food composites were positive for ergot alkaloids, enniatins B and B1 and deoxynivalenol (DON). The levels of DON in the positive samples were lower compared to other studies, with the exception of breakfast cereals for infants with a DON concentration of 116 μg/kg. This specific composite sample may have contained an ingredient with a concentration exceeding the maximum legal limit of 200 μg/kg. Alternaria toxins (alternariol and alternariol methyl ether) were detected at levels ranging from 1.0 to 8.9 μg/kg in a number of composite samples, including tomato products, nuts, cereal products, chocolate and wine. Mycophenolic acid and roquefortine C cooccurred in mould-ripened cheese composites, while mycophenolic acid also was found in dried fruit and liquorice composite samples.

ACS Style

P. López; T. De Rijk; R.C. Sprong; M.J.B. Mengelers; J.J.M. Castenmiller; M. Alewijn. A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part II – occurrence. World Mycotoxin Journal 2016, 9, 89 -108.

AMA Style

P. López, T. De Rijk, R.C. Sprong, M.J.B. Mengelers, J.J.M. Castenmiller, M. Alewijn. A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part II – occurrence. World Mycotoxin Journal. 2016; 9 (1):89-108.

Chicago/Turabian Style

P. López; T. De Rijk; R.C. Sprong; M.J.B. Mengelers; J.J.M. Castenmiller; M. Alewijn. 2016. "A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part II – occurrence." World Mycotoxin Journal 9, no. 1: 89-108.

Journal article
Published: 01 February 2016 in World Mycotoxin Journal
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A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study (mTDS) allowing assessment of occurrence and dietary exposure to these substances was developed and carried out in the Netherlands in 2013. First, literature was searched to establish the occurrence profile of mycotoxins. Next, foods as consumed according to the Dutch National Food Consumption Surveys (DNFCS) for young children and persons aged 7-69 years, categorised in several food categories, were ranked according to their summed consumption. Subsequently, foods with the highest consumptions were included to cover >85% of the consumption of a particular food category. In some cases, foods other than those contributing to the upper 85% consumption within a food category were included based on their expected high mycotoxin contamination. In some other cases, foods not contributing to mycotoxin exposure were excluded. This resulted in 130 foods to be included in this mTDS. Since a sample size of 12 was established per food, 1,560 food items were purchased for the population aged 7-69 years. Fifty seven additional food items were purchased to take into account the different consumption profile of young children. The 1,617 food items were prepared as consumed based on information available in the food consumption surveys. The prepared food items were combined according to the different consumption forms of the 130 selected foods (e.g. fresh, canned or frozen). This resulted in 213 subsamples, which were proportionally to their consumption further pooled into 88 composite samples. These composite samples covered 87 and 88% of the amount foods consumed by young children and the population aged 7-69 years, respectively. This design allows analysis of mycotoxin occurrence and the subsequent exposure assessment using aggregated food categories reflected by the 88 composite samples, as well as a more refined approach by analysing 213 subsamples.

ACS Style

R.C. Sprong; L. De Wit-Bos; M.J. Zeilmaker; M. Alewijn; J.J.M. Castenmiller; M.J.B. Mengelers. A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part I – Design. World Mycotoxin Journal 2016, 9, 73 -88.

AMA Style

R.C. Sprong, L. De Wit-Bos, M.J. Zeilmaker, M. Alewijn, J.J.M. Castenmiller, M.J.B. Mengelers. A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part I – Design. World Mycotoxin Journal. 2016; 9 (1):73-88.

Chicago/Turabian Style

R.C. Sprong; L. De Wit-Bos; M.J. Zeilmaker; M. Alewijn; J.J.M. Castenmiller; M.J.B. Mengelers. 2016. "A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part I – Design." World Mycotoxin Journal 9, no. 1: 73-88.

Journal article
Published: 01 February 2016 in World Mycotoxin Journal
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In a mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study (mTDS) performed in the autumn and winter of 2013 in the Netherlands, 48 mycotoxins, including patulin, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, trichothecenes, ergot alkaloids, Alternaria toxins, beauvericin and enniatins, were quantified. Analyses were performed in 88 composite samples representative for the consumption pattern of the Dutch population. This article presents the results of the exposure assessment and subsequent risk assessment of these mycotoxins. Exposure was assessed by combining individual food consumption data obtained from the Dutch National Food Consumption Surveys (DNFCS) for young children aged 2-6 years and the population aged 7-69 years with the analytical results of the mTDS, using a lower bound and an upper bound scenario for levels below the limit of detection. Wherever possible, exposure estimates were compared with toxicological reference values, including health-based guidance values. The high level of exposure (95th percentile) exceeded the toxicological reference value regardless of the substitution scenario for ochratoxin A in the population aged 7-69 years, for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins for children aged 2-6 years and for alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether in both examined populations. The margin of exposure was too small for aflatoxin B1. For the remaining 23 mycotoxins with a toxicological reference value, the estimated exposure was below this level.

ACS Style

R.C. Sprong; L. De Wit-Bos; J.D. Te Biesebeek; M. Alewijn; P. Lopez; M.J.B. Mengelers. A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part III – exposure and risk assessment. World Mycotoxin Journal 2016, 9, 109 -128.

AMA Style

R.C. Sprong, L. De Wit-Bos, J.D. Te Biesebeek, M. Alewijn, P. Lopez, M.J.B. Mengelers. A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part III – exposure and risk assessment. World Mycotoxin Journal. 2016; 9 (1):109-128.

Chicago/Turabian Style

R.C. Sprong; L. De Wit-Bos; J.D. Te Biesebeek; M. Alewijn; P. Lopez; M.J.B. Mengelers. 2016. "A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part III – exposure and risk assessment." World Mycotoxin Journal 9, no. 1: 109-128.

Journal article
Published: 30 September 2015 in World Mycotoxin Journal
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In this study, a risk assessment of dietary exposure to the conjugated mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-β-glucoside (DON-3G) in the Dutch population was conducted. Data on DON-3G levels in food products available in the Netherlands are scarce. Therefore, data on co-occurring levels of DON-3G and deoxynivalenol (DON), its parent compound, were used to estimate the DON-3G/DON ratio for several food product categories. This resulted in a DON-3G/DON ratio of 0.2 (90% confidence interval (CI): 0.04-0.9) in grains & grain-milling products, 0.3 (90% CI: 0.03-2.8) in grain-based products and 0.8 (90% CI: 0.4-1.8) in beer. These ratios were applied to the Dutch monitoring data of DON to estimate the DON-3G concentrations in food products available in the Netherlands. DON and DON-3G concentrations were combined with food consumption data of two Dutch National Food Consumption Surveys to assess chronic exposure in young children (2-6 years), children (7-16 years) and adults (17-69 years) using the Monte Carlo Risk Assessment program. The chronic exposure levels of DON, DON-3G and the sum of both compounds (DON+DON-3G) were compared to the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 1 μg/kg body weight/day which is based on the most critical effect of DON, namely decreased body weight gain. The assumption was made that DON-3G is deconjugated and then fully absorbed as DON in the gastro-intestinal tract. Exposure (P97.5) of the population aged 7-16 years and 17-69 years to DON or DON-3G separately, did not exceed the TDI. However, exposure to upper bound levels of DON+DON-3G (i.e. worst-case scenario) in the same age categories (P97.5) exceeded the TDI with a maximum factor of 1.3. Exposure (P97.5) of the 2-6 year-olds to DON was close to the TDI. Within this group, exposure (P97.5) to upper bound levels of DON+DON-3G exceeded the TDI with not more than a factor 2.

ACS Style

E.M. Janssen; R.C. Sprong; P.W. Wester; M. De Boevre; M.J.B. Mengelers. Risk assessment of chronic dietary exposure to the conjugated mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-β-glucoside in the Dutch population. World Mycotoxin Journal 2015, 8, 561 -572.

AMA Style

E.M. Janssen, R.C. Sprong, P.W. Wester, M. De Boevre, M.J.B. Mengelers. Risk assessment of chronic dietary exposure to the conjugated mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-β-glucoside in the Dutch population. World Mycotoxin Journal. 2015; 8 (5):561-572.

Chicago/Turabian Style

E.M. Janssen; R.C. Sprong; P.W. Wester; M. De Boevre; M.J.B. Mengelers. 2015. "Risk assessment of chronic dietary exposure to the conjugated mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-β-glucoside in the Dutch population." World Mycotoxin Journal 8, no. 5: 561-572.

Journal article
Published: 10 January 2014 in European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety
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ACS Style

M. J. Zeilmaker; B. G. H. Bokkers; J. D. Te Biesebeek; M. J. B. Mengelers; C. W. Noorlander. Dietary Intake and Health Risk Assessment of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in the Netherlands Based on Data Collected in 2004 and 2008. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety 2014, 4, 535 -557.

AMA Style

M. J. Zeilmaker, B. G. H. Bokkers, J. D. Te Biesebeek, M. J. B. Mengelers, C. W. Noorlander. Dietary Intake and Health Risk Assessment of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in the Netherlands Based on Data Collected in 2004 and 2008. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety. 2014; 4 (4):535-557.

Chicago/Turabian Style

M. J. Zeilmaker; B. G. H. Bokkers; J. D. Te Biesebeek; M. J. B. Mengelers; C. W. Noorlander. 2014. "Dietary Intake and Health Risk Assessment of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in the Netherlands Based on Data Collected in 2004 and 2008." European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety 4, no. 4: 535-557.